Self-Reported Physical Activity in Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Rural South Africa: Levels and Correlates
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chronic Disease/Health Variables | Total (n = 4538) | Men (n = 2146) | Women (n = 2392) | p-Value | Participants Missing GPAQ Data (n = 521) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age—years a | 61.5 ± 13.0 61 (51, 71) | 61.5 ± 12.7 61 (51, 71) | 61.6 ± 13.4 60 (51, 71) | 0.612 | 63.5 ± 13.1 63 (53, 73) |
Age group—n (%) | |||||
40–49 years | 845 (18.6) | 390 (18.2) | 455 (19.0) | <0.001; chi2(4) = 33.64 | 73 (14.0) |
50–59 years | 1274 (28.1) | 574 (26.8) | 700 (29.3) | 136 (26.1) | |
60–69 years | 1159 (25.5) | 591 (27.5) | 568 (23.8) | 145 (27.8) | |
70–79 years | 784 (17.3) | 410 (19.1) | 374 (15.6) | 94 (18.0) | |
80+ years | 476 (10.5) | 181 (8.4) | 295 (12.3) | 73 (14.0) | |
Marital status—n (%) | |||||
Never married | 261 (5.8) | 150 (7.0) | 111 (4.6) | <0.001; chi2(3) = 686.83 | 32 (6.1) |
Divorced/separated | 577 (12.7) | 273 (12.7) | 304 (12.7) | 73 (14.0) | |
Widowed | 1353 (29.8) | 250 (11.7) | 1103 (46.1) | 188 (36.1) | |
Married/cohabiting | 2347 (51.7) | 1473 (68.6) | 874 (36.5) | 228 (43.8) | |
Wealth index—n (%) b | n = 4534 | n = 2144 | n = 2390 | ||
Level 1 | 946 (20.9) | 462 (21.6) | 484 (20.3) | 0.681; chi2(4) = 2.30 | 99 (19.0) |
Level 2 | 873 (19.3) | 400 (18.7) | 473 (19.8) | 128 (24.6) | |
Level 3 | 866 (19.1) | 405 (18.9) | 461 (19.3) | 122 (23.4) | |
Level 4 | 904 (19.9) | 421 (19.6) | 483 (20.2) | 103 (19.8) | |
Level 5 | 945 (20.8) | 456 (21.3) | 489 (20.5) | 69 (13.2) | |
Difficulty walking b—n (% yes) | n = 4530 345 (7.6) | n = 2141 160 (7.5) | n = 2389 185 (7.7) | 0.732; chi2(1) = 0.12 | n = 521 45 (8.6) |
Maximum grip strength (kg) a, b | n = 4201 26.4 ± 9.1 25.4 (20.1, 31.8) | n = 1985 30.7 ± 9.3 30.6 (24.3, 36.6) | n = 2216 22.5 ± 6.8 22.2 (18.0, 26.5) | <0.001 | n = 490 25.8 ± 11.5 23.5 (18.5, 29.7) |
Cognition a, b—total score (out of 24) | n = 4390 11.5 ± 4.5 12 (9, 14) | n = 2069 11.9 ± 4.4 12 (9, 15) | n = 2321 11.2 ± 4.5 11 (8, 14) | <0.001 | n = 513 10.3 ± 4.0 11 (8, 13) |
Experienced pain—n (% yes) b | n = 4435 459 (10.4) | n = 2094 170 (8.1) | n = 2341 289 (12.4) | <0.001; chi2(1) = 21.28 | n = 515 58 (11.3) |
Depression symptoms a, b | n = 4421 1.0 ± 1.4 1 (0, 1) | n = 2086 1.0 ± 1.3 1 (0, 1) | n = 2335 1.1 ± 1.5 1 (0, 1) | 0.017 | n = 516 1.4 ± 1.7 1 (0, 2) |
HIV positive—n (% yes) | 940 (20.7) | 447 (20.8) | 493 (20.6) | 0.856; chi2(1) = 0.03 | 107 (20.5) |
Hypertension—n (% yes) b | n = 4446 2814 (63.3) | n = 2092 1220 (58.3) | n = 2354 1594 (67.7) | <0.001; chi2(1) = 42.10 | n = 507 331 (65.3) |
Diabetes mellitus (DM)—n (% yes) b | n = 4183 493 (11.8) | n = 1970 212 (10.8) | n = 2213 281 (12.7) | 0.053; chi2(1) = 3.76 | n = 469 66 (14.1) |
Dyslipidemia—n (% yes) b | n = 3818 1664 (43.6) | n = 1760 784 (44.6) | n = 2058 880 (42.8) | 0.267; chi2(1) = 1.23 | n = 433 198 (45.7) |
Cluster of disease (hypertension + DM + dyslipidemia)—n (% yes) b | n = 4201 | n = 1957 | n = 2244 | n = 479 | |
None | 1011 (24.1) | 534 (27.3) | 477 (21.3) | <0.001; chi2(3) = 23.33 | 107 (22.3) |
1 | 1886 (44.9) | 861 (44.0) | 1025 (45.7) | 212 (44.3) | |
2 | 1103 (26.3) | 480 (24.5) | 623 (27.8) | 127 (26.5) | |
3 | 201 (4.8) | 82 (4.2) | 119 (5.3) | 33 (6.9) | |
BMI category—n (%) b | n = 4191 | n = 1973 | n = 2218 | <0.001; chi2(3) = 396.87 | n = 492 |
Normal weight | 1539 (36.7) | 928 (47.0) | 611 (27.6) | 179 (36.4) | |
Underweight | 227 (5.4) | 166 (8.4) | 61 (2.8) | 27 (5.5) | |
Overweight | 1193 (28.5) | 563 (28.5) | 630 (28.4) | 133 (27.0) | |
Obese | 1232 (29.4) | 316 (16.0) | 916 (41.3) | 153 (31.1) |
GPAQ Variable | Total (n = 4538) | Men (n = 2146) | Women (n = 2392) | p-Value | Cohen’s d |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Occupational VPA (min·wk−1) | 7.3 ± 125.1 0 (0, 0) | 9.1 ± 142.4 0 (0, 0) | 5.6 ± 107.2 0 (0, 0) | 0.796 | 0.03 |
Occupational MPA (min·wk−1) | 9.9 ± 147.2 0 (0, 0) | 9.3 ± 156.9 0 (0, 0) | 10.4 ± 137.9 0 (0, 0) | 0.338 | −0.01 |
Occupational MVPA (min·wk−1) | 17.1 ± 203.7 0 (0, 0) | 18.4 ± 219.8 0 (0, 0) | 15.9 ± 188.1 0 (0, 0) | 0.690 | 0.01 |
Transport MPA (min·wk−1) | 430.2 ± 493.6 270.0 (60.0, 600.0) | 494.7 ± 545.8 360.0 (90.0, 720.0) | 372.3 ± 433.6 240.0 (60.0, 480.0) | <0.001 | 0.25 |
Recreational VPA (min·wk−1) | 146.8 ± 374.3 0 (0, 0) | 154.2± 383.8 0 (0, 30.0) | 140.4 ± 365.6 0 (0, 0) | 0.014 | 0.04 |
Recreational MPA (min·wk−1) | 322.8 ± 586.2 0 (0, 360.0) | 278.0 ± 531.1 0 (0, 360.0) | 363.0 ± 628.9 0 (0, 480.0) | 0.003 | −0.15 |
Recreational MVPA (min·wk−1) | 469.6 ± 816.7 0 (0, 630.0) | 432.2 ± 778.6 0 (0, 600.0) | 503.2 ± 848.1 0 (0, 765.0) | 0.051 | −0.09 |
Total MVPA (min·wk−1) | 916.9 ± 1061.4 549.5 (150.0, 1260.0) | 945.3 ± 1083.5 600.0 (160.0, 1260.0) | 891.4 ± 1040.7 480.0 (150.0, 1260.0) | 0.061 | 0.05 |
Meeting PA guidelines (n, %) | 3421, 75.4% | 1622, 75.6% | 1799, 75.2% | 0.771; chi2(1) = 0.09 | |
Sitting time—weekdays (h.d−1) | 3.5 ± 2.3 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.6 ± 2.4 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.4 ± 2.2 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 0.004 | 0.09 |
Sitting time—weekend days (h.d−1) | 3.5 ± 2.3 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.6 ± 2.4 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.4 ± 2.3 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | <0.001 | 0.09 |
GPAQ Variable | 40–49 y (n = 845) | 50–59 y (n = 1274) | 60–69 y (n = 1159) | 70–79 y (n = 784) | 80+ y (n = 476) | p-Value | Eta Squared | p-Value for Trend |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Occupational VPA (min·wk−1) | 7.5 ± 128.3 0 (0, 0) | 17.0 ± 188.7 0 (0, 0) | 4.3 ± 99.8 0 (0, 0) | 0 ± 0 0 (0, 0) | 0 ± 0 0 (0, 0) | <0.001 | 0.003 | 0.348; chi2(1) = 0.88 |
Occupational MPA (min·wk−1) | 19.0 ± 221.2 0 (0, 0) | 16.2 ± 174.6 0 (0, 0) | 4.6 ± 96.3 0 (0, 0) | 3.4 ± 96.4 0 (0, 0) | 0 ± 0 0 (0, 0) | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.013; chi2(1) = 6.20 |
Occupational MVPA (min·wk−1) | 26.5 ± 255.6 0 (0, 0) | 33.2 ± 279.7 0 (0, 0) | 8.9 ± 148.2 0 (0, 0) | 3.4 ± 96.4 0 (0, 0) | 0 ± 0 0 (0, 0) | <0.001 | 0.005 | <0.001; chi2(1) = 12.89 |
Transport MPA (min·wk−1) | 501.0 ± 547.7 300.0 (120.0, 720.0) | 479.0 ± 474.3 360.0 (120.0, 720.0) | 465.8 ± 524.7 300.0 (90.0, 630.0) | 360.3 ± 442.6 210.0 (60.0, 480.0) | 202.4 ± 344.7 60.0 (0, 240.0) | <0.001 | 0.055 | <0.001; chi2(1) = 206.25 |
Recreational VPA (min·wk−1) | 204.56 ± 450.7 0 (0, 240.0) | 162.3 ± 384.6 0 (0, 20.0) | 144.8 ± 370.8 0 (0, 0) | 108.2 ± 311.0 0 (0, 0) | 71.2 ± 267.8 0 (0, 0) | <0.001 | 0.013 | <0.001; chi2(1) = 59.20 |
Recreational MPA (min·wk−1) | 394.1 ± 654.1 0 (0, 540.0) | 368.6 ± 633.8 0 (0, 480.0) | 360.5 ± 606.6 0 (0, 540.0) | 238.3 ± 464.9 0 (0, 240.0) | 121.1 ± 347.9 0 (0, 30.0) | <0.001 | 0.023 | <0.001; chi2(1) = 155.00 |
Recreational MVPA (min·wk−1) | 598.8 ± 924.8 150.0 (0, 840.0) | 530.9 ± 875.2 0 (0, 840.0) | 505.3 ± 835.9 0 (0, 720.0) | 346.4 ± 646.4 0 (0, 420.0) | 192.3 ± 510.8 0 (0, 120.0) | <0.001 | 0.026 | <0.001; chi2(1) = 155.67 |
Total MVPA (min·wk−1) | 1126.2 ± 1163.0 780.0 (270.0, 1500.0) | 1043.0 ± 1096.1 720.0 (240.0, 1440.0) | 979.9 ± 1102.4 600.0 (180.0, 1380.0) | 710.2 ± 861.5 375.0 (90.0, 1020.0) | 394.8 ± 690.3 120.0 (0, 430.0) | <0.001 | 0.069 | <0.001; chi2(1) = 297.99 |
Meeting PA guidelines (n, %) | 695, 82.3% | 1038, 81.5% | 910, 78.5% | 549, 70.0% | 229, 48.1% | <0.001; chi2(4) = 256.03 | <0.001; chi2(1) = 149.61 | |
Weekday Sitting (h·d−1) | 3.5 ± 2.1 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.4 ± 2.1 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.6 ± 2.2 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.7 ± 2.4 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.7 ± 2.9 3.0 (1.0, 6.0) | 0.275 | <0.001 | 0.009; chi2(1) = 6.74 |
Weekend day Sitting (h·d−1) | 3.5 ± 2.1 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.4 ± 2.2 3.0 (2.0, 4.5) | 3.6 ± 2.3 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.6 ± 2.5 3.0 (2.0, 5.0) | 3.6 ± 2.9 3.0 (1.0, 5.8) | 0.267 | <0.001 | 0.122; chi2(1) = 2.39 |
Outcome Variable: Not Meeting PA Guidelines | Model 1: Socio-Demographic (n = 4534) | Model 2: Socio-Demographic + Functional and Cognitive Capacity (n = 4116) | Model 3: Socio-Demographic + Functional and Cognitive Capacity + Chronic Disease/Health (n = 3729) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RRR | 95% CI | p-Value | RRR | 95% CI | p-Value | RRR | 95% CI | p-Value | |
Age | |||||||||
40–49 y (ref) | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - |
50–59 y | 1.07 | 0.85−1.34 | 0.588 | 0.84 | 0.65−1.09 | 0.198 | 0.84 | 0.63−1.12 | 0.224 |
60–69 y | 1.25 | 0.99−1.58 | 0.057 | 0.87 | 0.66−1.14 | 0.310 | 0.87 | 0.64−1.17 | 0.347 |
70–79 y | 1.90 | 1.49−2.44 | <0.001 | 0.96 | 0.71−1.30 | 0.793 | 0.95 | 0.68−1.33 | 0.763 |
80 + y | 4.64 | 3.54−6.09 | <0.001 | 1.70 | 1.21−2.40 | 0.002 | 1.73 | 1.18−2.54 | 0.005 |
Sex | |||||||||
Female (ref) | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - |
Male | 1.14 | 0.97−1.33 | 0.106 | 1.23 | 1.02−1.50 | 0.034 | 1.40 | 1.11−1.75 | 0.004 |
Wealth index | |||||||||
Level 1 (lowest-ref) | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - |
Level 2 | 1.17 | 0.94−1.46 | 0.164 | 1.26 | 0.98−1.63 | 0.071 | 1.31 | 0.99−1.74 | 0.055 |
Level 3 | 0.99 | 0.79−1.25 | 0.969 | 1.12 | 0.86−1.46 | 0.400 | 1.13 | 0.85−1.50 | 0.407 |
Level 4 | 1.11 | 0.89−1.39 | 0.345 | 1.45 | 1.12−1.87 | 0.005 | 1.43 | 1.08−1.88 | 0.013 |
Level 5 (highest) | 1.29 | 1.04−1.61 | 0.022 | 1.79 | 1.38−2.32 | <0.001 | 1.70 | 1.29−2.27 | <0.001 |
Marital status | |||||||||
Never married (ref) | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - |
Divorced/separated | 0.64 | 0.44−0.91 | 0.014 | 1.01 | 0.64−1.61 | 0.961 | 0.98 | 0.57−1.68 | 0.941 |
Widowed | 0.93 | 0.66−1.29 | 0.653 | 1.31 | 0.84−2.03 | 0.228 | 1.32 | 0.79−2.19 | 0.286 |
Married/cohabiting | 0.69 | 0.50−0.94 | 0.019 | 1.25 | 0.82−1.88 | 0.299 | 1.27 | 0.78−2.06 | 0.333 |
LR chi2(12) = 252.97, p < 0.000, Pseudo R2 = 0.050 | |||||||||
Difficulty walking | |||||||||
No (ref) | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | |||
Yes | 3.93 | 2.95−5.23 | <0.001 | 3.42 | 2.48−4.71 | <0.001 | |||
Max grip strength | |||||||||
Score, continuous (range 3.2–93.1 kg) | 0.99 | 0.97–1.00 | 0.014 | 0.98 | 0.97−1.00 | 0.008 | |||
Cognition | |||||||||
Score, continuous (range 0–24) | 0.89 | 0.87−0.91 | <0.001 | 0.90 | 0.88−0.92 | <0.001 | |||
LR chi2(15) = 411.91, p < 0.000, Pseudo R2 = 0.097 | |||||||||
Pain | |||||||||
No (ref) | 1 | - | - | ||||||
Yes | 0.81 | 0.62−1.05 | 0.116 | ||||||
Depressive symptoms | |||||||||
Score, continuous (range 0–7) | 1.06 | 1.00−1.13 | 0.056 | ||||||
BMI category | |||||||||
Normal weight (ref) | 1 | - | - | ||||||
Underweight | 1.08 | 0.72−1.61 | 0.712 | ||||||
Overweight | 1.19 | 0.95−1.50 | 0.124 | ||||||
Obese | 1.61 | 1.26−2.04 | <0.001 | ||||||
HIV status | |||||||||
Negative (ref) | 1 | - | - | ||||||
Positive | 0.75 | 0.77−1.23 | 0.832 | ||||||
Cluster of disease | |||||||||
None (ref) | 1 | - | - | ||||||
Yes—1 | 0.92 | 0.74−1.16 | 0.494 | ||||||
Yes—2 | 1.11 | 0.87−1.43 | 0.397 | ||||||
Yes—3 | 1.03 | 0.68−1.57 | 0.882 | ||||||
LR chi2(24) = 332.28, p < 0.000, Pseudo R2 = 0.090 |
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Tomaz, S.A.; Davies, J.I.; Micklesfield, L.K.; Wade, A.N.; Kahn, K.; Tollman, S.M.; Draper, C.E.; Witham, M.D. Self-Reported Physical Activity in Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Rural South Africa: Levels and Correlates. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176325
Tomaz SA, Davies JI, Micklesfield LK, Wade AN, Kahn K, Tollman SM, Draper CE, Witham MD. Self-Reported Physical Activity in Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Rural South Africa: Levels and Correlates. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(17):6325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176325
Chicago/Turabian StyleTomaz, Simone A., Justine I. Davies, Lisa K. Micklesfield, Alisha N. Wade, Kathleen Kahn, Stephen M. Tollman, Catherine E. Draper, and Miles D. Witham. 2020. "Self-Reported Physical Activity in Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Rural South Africa: Levels and Correlates" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 17: 6325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176325